Evolutionary Approach to Psychology

The Evolutionary Approach to Medicine:

This approach opens our eyes to understanding, “on the origins and etiology of disease.” Durisko,2016 With evolutionary theory as it relates to psychiatric conditions, we can’t over time take natural selection and determine one’s mental stability. The Evolutionary Approach it suggests that some, “disorders” might present themselves through real life scenarios. These approaches point to basic illness, showing different preventive measure to assist in a solution. The brain has grown over time through evolution to overcome the difficulties, which deal with basic operations and disabilities such as Alzheimer’s. This is developed; through natural selection. “Studying evolutionary origin is a big part of understanding etiology.” Durisko, 2016

Over the last 15 years, we have watched psychology evolve, by way of theoretical perspective, and continual growth. There has not always been agreement on the matter of evolutionary psychology. There has been controversy and questions, pro’s and con’s. According to Easton Confer, “some controversy stems from hypotheses that go against traditional psychological theories; some from empirical findings that may have disturbing implications.”Confer, 2010

The basic purpose of evolutionary psychology is to look at behavioral, mental, cognitive, and physical s survival of humankind. Darwin developed the theory of natural selection, which says without procreation the human race will die off. Evolution according to Darwin theory informs us that, genes from our parents and the adaption to the environment play a role in continuing the next generation.

1. Example of stopping natural selection could be men mating with men and women mating with women. Without intervention assistance, the human race can slow existence of humankind.

Adaptive memory has involved to also assisting us in existing through, “fitness-related survival” (Confer 2010.)  Such as sex, shelter and food; take for instance as it relate to food,

1. An example is; a person who went through the great depression. This person might be good at solving the problem of making a meal stretch, because they are able to remember and adapt.
2. If you just look at this generation, their memory as it relates to survival with technology has adapted and has taken technology by storm.

Memory has indeed evolved over time, and evolution is in a continual incline. As it relates to natural selection and attraction, individuals now use the internet  in finding their mates or significant other. There are trials and errors associated, with selecting a mate this way.

Nurture vs. Nature and Evolution

The experience psychology, suggest that psychology and our survival exist through evolutionary approach of psychology. In addition, both nurture (biological and genes) and Nature (environment and social) and needed in continuing natural selection. When choosing a mate, men choose youthfulness and women resources to move their genes alone.

 

Humanistic Approach to Psychology

The Humanistic Approach to Psychology:

This approach is the basis of an approach which studies an individual as well as different characteristics of that individual. Psychologists of the Humanistic approach looks at situations, experiences, and human behaviors through the eyes of the observer as well as the individual.

Psychologists saw that there were limitations in both the psycho dynamic and behaviorist approaches to psychology. This was the contribution to establish a new perspective labeled as the Humanistic approach. “The humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviorism (Maslow, 1968).

Main focal points of the humanistic approach include:

1. Hierarchy of needs which is a theory proposed by humanistic contributor and founder Abraham Maslow, to list everyday human needs in a specific order with physiological being the most common among humans, to self-actualization which is more difficult to attain.
2. Self-Concept which is used to measure how an individual thinks, evaluates, or perceive themselves. “This is ‘the most basic part of the self-scheme or self-concept; the sense of being separate and distinct from others and the awareness of the constancy of the self’ (Bee, 1992).”
3. People set expectations or a self-image for themselves throughout their lives, this is called congruence. Humanistic contributor Carl Rogers believed that everyone should seek a state of congruency to achieve self-actualization from the hierarchy of needs. Humans often tend to use defense mechanisms to defend their self-proclaimed image to eliminate thoughts of failure or to feel less threatened.

The humanistic approach combats with both psycho dynamic and behavioral approaches because both approaches have a huge characteristic of being deterministic. Which cannot be applied to a humanistic approach and the way they think and behave every day.

The strength of this perspective is somewhat a context clue. “Human”, this perspective redirects all the focus revolving everything human. From cognitive processes, observable behavior, and experiences. Another strength to the humanistic approach is the theory of hierarchy of needs, although it can be argued that levels may be in a slightly different order, this pyramid structure of human needs gives a layout to explain human motivation and behavior. Limitations regarding this perspective is that it is reliable on qualitative data which is very difficult to analyze, and the approach does not consider the unconscious mental processes.

This approach has offered a new understanding for human motives and human behavior. It dives deep into the individual’s personal interests and needs. The humanistic approach is applied to all humans every day in their lives.

Cognitive Approach to Psychology

The Cognitive Approach to Psychology:

This approach evaluates and understands the internal processes that goes on throughout the mind. Psychologists in this area study the works of the brain’s mental processes by which knowledge is acquired. The cognitive perspective is led by psychologists such as Jean Piaget, Ulrich Neisser, and many more.

The approach has evolved into its own due to reasons such as the curiosity of internal processes between human and computer, thinking, perception, language, memory, and categorization. The cognitive approach along with these factors is what we use for our present-day society.

Main focal points of the cognitive approach are:

1. Algorithms and heuristics are used in the cognitive theory. Heuristics which is a method or practice to solve problems for the goal of a solution. Algorithms is a process or step-by-step rule of gaining a solution to a problem. Algorithms are usually performed by computers and technology, while heuristics are usually practiced by humans.
2. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development was focused on growth through children’s cognitive growth. This theory went in depth to how humans reason and think logically throughout the early stages of their lives. This consisted of four stages which were sensorimotor, preoperative, concrete operational and formal operational period.
3. Information processing is the central point of the cognitive perspective. This approach brings the idea that man and computer both have different and similar ways of processing information to produce a solution.

The cognitive approach differentiates from the behavioral perspective due to that the behavioral approach is based on observable behavior and external factors, and does not consider the through mental processes that occurs in an individual’ brain.

A viable strength to the cognitive perspective is that psychologists and groups of psychologists have contributed to the perspective through many different applicable theories that can apply to a broad range of situations or perspectives on a human life. To add on to that, another strength is that these theories require experimental practices to validate these theories which makes it even more able to apply to practical situations. A disadvantage to this perspective is that it is often hard to evaluate or observe cognitive processes because you cannot vividly observe someone’s thoughts in a direct manner. Another weakness is that it ignores cultural and social factors. Many people think different ways so it’s often hard to pinpoint the exact observation through theories for an entire human population.

Cognitive is another word for knowledge, or knowing. This perspective focuses primarily on human thoughts and processes within the brain. It also focuses with the way we perceive, attain, and respond to information.

Behaviorism Approach

Behaviorism Approach

The three main points of Behaviorism psychology:

 

1. All behavior is learned from the environment.
2. Psychology should be seen as a science. Empirical data and controlled observation measures behavior.
3. Behavior is the result of stimulus – response

The impact of behaviorism has had on society:

Behaviorism has had a durable influence on everything from animal training to parenting. Behavior is a combination of nature and nurture, and no matter how difficult it will always be abridged to a simple stimulus also known as the response association. We also notice that B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov play a big role as it relates to behaviorism. Skinner gave use a blueprint of evidence. However when it comes to Pavlov we learn that he works on classical conditioning.

 

Strengths and limitations of behaviorism:

• Strengths

Modern psychologists, such as in a Skinner proved that results can be reliably reproduced experimentally. This means that the results showed will be dependable and will stay consistent.  Although behaviorism doesn’t allow active human action, the conscious of self-awareness according to David Chalmers, is naturally expressed through language.

 

• Weaknesses

A weakness could be they can’t explain how people make procedural decisions or negotiate between many types of potential rewards. In addition to that, according to Kamarulzaman behaviorism can’t explains person’s differences within different variations of learning- styles. We then take a note that behavioral studies when it comes to therapy can lead to behavior modification, as Digdon et al states. Behavior modification, allows different learning methods to adjust or alter ones behavioral patterns.

 

How each approach has evolved from its inception until present day?

Behaviorism has valid, but limited claims. While learning about clinical psychology behaviorist theory, we take note that cognitive theory helps create more effective results. Even while in current military education, issues such as professional ethics and mindfulness require cognitive skills and training

Biological Approach

 

Biological Approach to Psychology:

The approach focuses mainly on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. Descartes determined that even though the body and mind are separate they do interact. He argued that “the mind decides and the body carries out the decision”. The nervous system and the brain helps adapt to an environment. Our thoughts, behaviors and feelings are examined from a biological view when dealing with this approach.

Main focal points of the cognitive approach are:

1. Different parts of the brain are responsible for different functions and behaviors. If the brain changes by damage the individual personality will change as well. The relationship between the mind, brain, and behavior is observed through methods used to detect the activity of the brain.
2. Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system. The nervous system is important to the biological approach, because it helps send messages thought an individual’s body.
3. Genes play a huge role in the biological approach. Genetics explain differences in mental disorders and intelligence. “Behavioral genetics examine the extent to which individuals are shaped by their heredity and their environmental experiences” ( Loehlin JC, Horn JM, Willerman L, 1988). Genetics is a key factor in the biological approach, so there aren’t many changes that occur through genetics because they are passed down through families.

The biological approach has an impact on society in the context of mental disorders. It helps explain where in the brain if effects. It explains how the individual will behave. The biological approach explains how certain treatments will act on the body, and how we can repair after damage. The biological approach states that genetics have to do with mental disorders because it can be inherited through families. Every human mood can be explain by the biological approach; happiness, depression, and even criminal behavior.

A limitation of the approach includes how “The biological approach ignores life experiences of distress thought and feelings”. (McLeod, 2015).

A strength is how the approach is scientific which means experiments can be repeated for reliability.

The biological approach differs from the the behavioral approach because the behavioral approach states that our behavior is determined by the environment. The biological approach states that our behavior has to do with our genetic makeup.

 

Psychodynamic Approach

The three main points of psycho-dynamic psychology:

1. Psychodynamic theorists advocate that the majority of psychological processes take place outside conscious awareness.
2. According to the psychodynamic psychology, early experiences influences personality processes that affect us years, even decades, later.
3. Nothing in mental life happens by chance, there is no such thing as a random thought, feeling, motive, or behavior.

The impact of psycho-dynamic psychology has had on society:

Psycho-dynamic psychology has led to a therapy called psychodynamic therapy. This therapy focuses on unconscious processes as they are manifested in a person’s present behavior. The goals of psychodynamic therapy are a client’s self-awareness and understanding of the influence of the past on present behavior. The psychodynamic approach enables the client to examine unresolved conflicts and symptoms that arise from past dysfunctional relationships and manifest themselves in the need and desire to abuse substances. This therapy is the stereotypical therapist and client on a couch representation.

Also Freud’s book, The Interpretation of Dreams, was a landmark book that broke barriers. Freud’s ideas about dreaming and other mental processes were often controversial among his peers, and the controversy has not subsided in the many years since his death. Freud’s theories have transcended throughout generations, there is little doubt that the psychodynamic approach had significant impact. His study of motivation and mental processes laid the foundation for all psychological theories, and changed our culture by changing how we see ourselves. Understanding just how much our world was changed because of Freud’s work can be difficult to grasp, for we are immersed in a world of Freudian concepts. Every time we make reference to doing something “unconsciously”, or refer to someone as having a big “ego”, we are using Freudian terms.

Include the strengths and limitations of each approach

Modern psychologists have pointed out that traditional psychoanalysis relies too much on ambiguities for its data, such as dreams and free associations. Without empirical evidence, Freudian theories often seem weak, and ultimately fail to initiate standards for treatment.

Strengths

• Many observations of psychodynamic therapists appear to be borne out in everyday life, e.g., defense mechanisms.
• Many people with psychological disturbances do recollect childhood traumas
• Freudian theory provides a comprehensive framework to describe human personality.
• Freud supported the distressed, making their suffering more comprehensible to the rest of society.
• By developing a method of treatment, Freud encouraged a more optimistic view regarding psychological distress. Mental illness could, in some cases at least, be treated.

Weaknesses

• Lacks scientific validity- The psychodynamic model is able to provide believable explanations for the causes of abnormality, e.g. childhood traumas, but it lacks the empirical research evidence needed to support the theory.
• Psychoanalysis depends heavily on the therapist’s interpretation of what the client says. Does a dream about riding a bike really mean that the client has dreamt about sex? Freud said that if the client accepted the interpretation then it was probably correct. However, if the client vehemently rejected the interpretation it may simply be the client’s conscious mind rejecting an unacceptable but accurate interpretation. It’s a win/win for the therapist.
• Over focus on sexual issues Psychodynamic theory as developed by Freud tended to focus too much on sexual issues, and de- emphasized the importance of interpersonal and social factors in causing and maintaining mental disorders. Is it more likely that failing to resolve the Oedipus complex causes abnormality, or could a dysfunctional parenting style leading to an insecure attachment be the cause?

How each approach has evolved from its inception until present day

Freudian analysis has decreased in its usage, even among those who still practice psychoanalysis: early childhood receives much less emphasis, and there is generally more focus on problems the client is currently experiencing. By the early 21st cent, various kinds of psychoanalysis continued to be practiced, but the theory and practice of psychoanalysis was eventually overshadowed by cognitive psychology and discoveries in neurobiology.

Sociocultural Approach

Socio-Cultural Psychology-

According to the sociocultural approach, cultural factors such as language, art, social norms and social structures can play a significant role in the development of our cognitive abilities. “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individual”. (Vygotsky, 1978)

At least three main points of each approach:

1. Socio-Cultural Psychology places emphasis on culture shaping cognitive development – this contradicts Piaget’s view of universal stages and content of development.
2. Socio-Cultural Psychology places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development.
3. Socio-Cultural Psychology places more emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development.

Impact each approach has had on society:

Vygotsky sociocultural theory has a lot of educational implications as it primarily points toward the main purpose, of the school system of learning. The interaction between the learner and more skilled person to bring about learning is the whole mission of the school system.

Compare and contrast the various approaches

Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development. While Piaget stressed how a child’s interactions and explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social interactions play in cognitive development. Another important difference between the two theories was that while Piaget’s theory suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development can differ between different cultures. The development in a Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in an Eastern culture.

Strengths

• The second strength of the social approach is social studies have important applications to everyday life. Social psychology studies prejudice conformity and obedience; these are real factors that influence how people in everyday social situations.
• The first strength of the social approach is it utilizes experimental methods. Experimental methods manipulate one variable to see the effect it has on another variable. This allows for cause and effect to be established. The social approach can therefore be seen as being scientific.

Weaknesses

• The weakness of the socio-cultural approach is research has ethical issues, particularly protection from harm. Protection from harm means that any individual who is a participant from research should be protected from any harm both physical and mental they would not be subject to in their everyday life.
• The weakness of the socio-cultural approach is samples can often be unrepresentative of the wider population. This means that the sample is biased in some way to a particular type of person. This is a weakness because Social approach research findings cannot be generalized to every person in the population if this is the case.

how each approach has evolved from its inception until present day

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory is widely cited by educators even today, as they formulate plans on how to get the most from students, challenging them to reach their highest potential. Vygotsky’s belief that social interaction leads not only to increased levels of knowledge, but that it actually changes a child’s thoughts and behaviors.