Summary of Architectural Exclusion: Discrimination And Segregation Through Physical Design Of The Built Environment

In her article “Architectural Exclusion: Discrimination And Segregation Through Physical Design Of The Built Environment”, Sarah Schindler focuses on the issue of segregation through architectural design. Schindler divides her article in two parts. Part one discusses the theory of discrimination and segregation through architecture while part two discusses the application of this theory. This summary will highlight the major examples Schindler uses to describe the theory of discrimination and segregation through architecture as well as its application.

Since it is now unacceptable to segregate people openly, organizations and people have resorted to segregating people through architecture since it is much less obvious to the public. By designing things a certain way, such as the benches in a park, which are divided into sections, it can restrict certain types of people from wishing to use them. At first glance, the divided sections may seem practical because they allow people to sit among each other with space in between them. However, the divided sections of the bench may also serve as a deterrent for homeless people since they can no longer lay on the bench to sleep. (Schindler 1942).

Divided central park bench.

(Divided central park bench.)

To further support her theory, Schindler focuses on what the placement and availability of desirable items have on people, or as she calls it “features of the built environment that function to control human behavior or hinder access” (Schindler 1948). For example, Schindler uses the example of junk food and healthy food in a cafeteria. If the cafeteria wishes to offer the healthier options to the consumers, they will place them in areas that are easily accessible and visible. The options of junk food will still be available, but will be harder to reach and less visible in comparison to the healthier counterparts. (Schindler 1948). The point being made is that people will tend to do the things that are most convenient to them. Schindler ties this together by including the examination conducted by Lior Jacob Strahilevitz on exclusionary amenities. The idea is to segregate based on social class. By increasing the price of “exclusionary amenities” such as houses, it restricts the ability for poorer social classes to mix with the rich elite class. (Schindler 1949).

In part two of “Architectural Exclusion: Discrimination And Segregation Through Physical Design Of The Built Environment”, Schindler discusses the application of the theory of segregation through architecture. The first example used by Schindler are the bridges constructed by Robert Moses. Moses did not wish to mix the people of lower socioeconomic classes with the higher classes. In order to do this, Moses created the bridges that led to Jones’s Beach with a lower clearance, so that public transportation like buses would not be able to travel to the island. Moses did not wish to allow buses to travel to the island since public transportation is associated with people of lower socioeconomic classes, typically those of color. (Schindler 1953)

In addition to this, the placement of bus stops and construction of highways also plays a large role in architectural segregation. Many communities refuse to have bus stops placed near them since the bus stops would allow those who are poor to be able to travel to richer areas. Richer communities also influence the design and location of major highways, usually routing them through poorer areas in other to relocate those who lived there to other areas, effectively segregating them in specific areas away from the rich.

Schindler also uses examples of city design, such as the use of one way streets and lack of road signs. The use of one way streets may reduce traffic flow, but they also have been used to direct traffic flow away from particularly richer areas. When cities implement one way streets and remove road signs, it can be very difficult to navigate to and around the city in question. By making it difficult to travel to and from the city and confusing to navigate within the city, the chance that tourists and minorities will visit are very slim, leaving those of the higher class segregated from them.

Osborne Junction. Commonly known as Confusion Corner.

(Osborne Junction. Commonly known as Confusion Corner.)

Regardless of the reason provided for designing the infrastructure the way it is, the motive is always the same. Schindler identifies this modern day method of legal segregation and discrimination as architectural exclusion.

Bibliography 

Schindler, Sarah.“Architectural Exclusion: Discrimination And Segregation Through Physical Design Of The Built Environment.” Yale Law Journal 124.6 (2015): 1934-1972. Academic Search Complete. Web. 20 Nov. 2015.

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  7. By Elias Biryabarema

    KAMPALA, April 9 (Reuters) – Scovia Nakawooya’s unborn child died inside her as
    she struggled to reach a hospital on foot. She died hours later – one
    of at least seven women in labour to become casualties of Uganda’s coronavirus lockdown,
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    With public ambulances scarce, Ugandans typically reach
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    In neighbouring Kenya, the family of a motorbike taxi driver
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    to hospital.

    Police did not respond to requests for comment this week.

    Uganda had recorded 53 cases of coronavirus infections, and no deaths, as of Thursday afternoon. (Reporting by Elias Biryabarema with additional reporting by Joseph Akwiri
    in Mombasa Editing by Katharine Houreld, Alexandra Zavis
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  16. Cash AND cards to go the way of the cheque?

    Tech experts say payments by mobile will ‘eliminate’ both by 2020

    Phone chips will become main method of payment

    Users will pay via NFC (‘near field’) chips where they ‘bump’ mobiles on tills to
    pay

    65% of 1200 experts agreed with statement

    Poll includes experts from Google, Microsoft and Harvard

    By ROB WAUGH

    Published: 12:05 GMT, 18 April 2012 | Updated:
    12:05 GMT, 18 April 2012

    24

    View
    comments

    Payments via mobile systems such as NFC (near field communications) chips
    will overtake both cash AND cards by 2020, claims a new report

    The pennies in our pockets could soon be consigned to the history books –
    along with debit and credit cards.

    A poll of technology experts by America’s Pew Internet Research centre found that most predicted that mobile-phone payments would have overtaken both cash AND cards by
    2020.

    Of the 1200 experts polled, 65% thought that cash and cards would be nearly wiped out
    by 2020.

    The poll included Harvard experts as well as engineers from companies such
    as Google and Microsoft.

    The need for either cash or cards will be ‘eliminated’ by chips in mobile phones.

    In shops, people will ‘bump’ their phones
    against tills to pay – or simply pay online via apps.

    Many tech experts also believe that the new systems will be MORE
    secure.

    Google chief economist Hal Varian said, ‘Two-factor authentication (secret number + physical device) is better than one-factor authentication, and smart phones seem to have
    a natural role here.’

    Microsoft  engineer Christian Huitema says, ‘We have already witnessed the transition from
    cash to debit/credit cards. The electronic wallet is not
    much more than a ‘virtual card,’ in which near-field wireless communication replaces the reading of a magnetic stripe.’

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    The poll, which included experts from Harvard and Google,
    expected that ‘near field communication’ systems – where users ‘bump’ phones against tills to transfer funds,
    as well as online payments from phones, would have
    overtaken cash and cards in eight years time.

    Based on a technology known as near-field communication (NFC), Google Wallet allows users to store payment information in the cloud and pay for goods at participating retailers by tapping their phone at the point of purchase

    ‘Overall, a majority supported the scenario that by
    2020 most people will have embraced and fully adopted the use of smart-device swiping for purchases they make, nearly eliminating the need for
    cash or credit cards,’ says Pew, a respected technology think tank.

    ‘These experts feel that the explosive growth
    in the use of smartphones and other mobile devices, makes these systems an obvious choice to replace established modes of payment in day-to-day commerce.’

    The research found that the change is already happening – particularly
    in America, where phones using Google Wallet (a mobile payment system) and NFC payment chips are more common.

    A March 2012 Federal Reserve report found that 21% of mobile phone owners had used mobile banking services in the past year and that another 11% of mobile owners plan to use such services in the next 12 months.

    The study also found that some 12% of mobile phone owners have made payments—such as paying bills
    online or transferring money directly to another person’s account—via their phones.

    In the developing world, the figures are even higher – 20% of Kenya’s GDP is sent via text message every year
    using the country’s M-Pesa system.

    In late 2011, Google launched Google Wallet in partnership with Citibank and MasterCard.

    Based on a technology known as near-field communication (NFC), Google Wallet allows users to store payment information in the cloud and pay for
    goods at participating retailers by tapping their phone at the point of purchase.

    Many analysts predict that Apple will announce its own virtual wallet service in the near future.

    Google

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  17. French President Emmanuel Macron has blamed his
    contraction of the Covid-19 virus on a combination of negligence and
    bad luck on Friday.

    The 42-year-old head of state urged his compatriots to stay safe in a self-shot video from the presidential
    retreat in Versailles where he is in self-isolation, as critics called out slip-ups in his behavior to prevent infection.

    Macron said he was experiencing symptoms that included headaches,
    fatigue and a dry cough and promised to give
    daily updates and be ‘totally transparent’ about the evolution of his illness. 

    French President Emmanuel Macron is seen on a screen wearing a
    face mask and giving the thumbs up to the camera after he tested for Covid-19 on Thursday and is now
    self-isolating

    ‘I am doing well,’ the 42-year-old French leader said, speaking softly
    and dressed casually in a turtleneck top. ‘Normally, there is no reason for it to evolve in a
    bad way.’

    Macron said his infection ‘shows that the virus really can touch everyone,
    because I am very protected and am very careful.’

    ‘Despite everything I caught this virus — perhaps, doubtless, a moment of
    negligence, a moment of bad luck, too,’ he said.

    In France, Macron’s diagnosis brought criticism that he had set a bad example as the country sees a new uptick in cases
    and instances of the French president violating the
    virus-control guidelines were captured on camera
    in recent days. 

    The 42-year-old head of state urged his compatriots to stay safe in a self-shot video on Friday and blamed his
    contraction of the Covid-19 virus on a combination of negligence and bad luck

    Macron usually wears a mask and adheres to social
    distancing rules, and has insisted that his virus strategy
    is driven by science. 

    However, critics pointed out a number of
    slip-ups in his behavior over the past week, including a close-quarters handshake
    to an embrace with the Prime Minister of Portugal, Antonio
    Costa, 59, in Paris on Wednesday and repeated big, group meals. 

    He shook hands and half-embraced the head of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Angel Gurria, 70, at a meeting Monday. 

    Both were masked, but Macron’s office acknowledged Friday
    the move was a ‘mistake.’ 

    A fellow European leader who spent time with Macron at an EU summit last week, Slovak Prime Minister Igor Matovic, tested positive for the virus Friday. 

    Ten other leaders at the EU summit have since tested negative;
    others either aren’t getting tested or haven’t released results.

    Macron’s diagnosis brought criticism that he had set a bad example
    as critics pointed out a number of slip-ups in his behavior over the past week.

    Pictured: French President Emmanuel Macron pats Spanish Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez on the back as he arrives for work at the palace on Monday

    Macron (second from left) meets with dignitaries for a meeting of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: European Council
    President Charles Michel, Secretary General Angel Gurria, Spanish PM Pedro Sanchez, and UNESCO general director Audrey Azoulay

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    He shook hands and half-embraced the head of the Organization for
    Economic Cooperation and Development, Angel Gurria, 70, at a
    meeting Monday (pictured)

    In his video message on Friday, the president suggested that his behavior had helped limit the
    spread of the virus.

    ‘Had I not respected the rules, the barrier measures, I would have caught
    it much faster and, most of all, I would have transmitted it in the
    preceding hours to many more people,’ Macron said.

    He urged people to ‘hold firm’ and look after each other during the festive season, warning: ‘The virus is picking up,
    even stronger.’ 

    Despite his diagnosis, Macron plans to continue running the
    country, and went ahead with a planned speech by video conference on Thursday. 

    He said: ‘I am working at a slightly slower pace because of the virus,
    but I shall continue to focus on high-priority issues, such as our handling of the epidemic,
    or, for example, the Brexit dossier.’ 

    Macron joins Britain’s PM Boris Johnson and US President Donald Trump in a growing list
    of world leaders who have contracted Covid-19. 

    Last week, Macron spent two days in intense negotiations at the EU summit in Brussels with the leaders of the other 26 member countries. 

    PM Boris Johnson, who has been snubbed by Mr Macron on face-to-face Brexit talks, tweeted:
    ‘Sorry to hear my friend @EmmanuelMacron has tested positive for coronavirus.
    We are all wishing you a speedy recovery.’

    Macron, 42, is staying at a residence called La
    Lanterne (pictured) in Versailles and is suffering from fever, cough and fatigue,
    it emerged today 

    Video excerpts released by the EU showed the leaders spread out in a circle in a huge meeting
    room — Macron, and most of the other leaders, were not masked.

    Macron also hosted or took part in multiple large-group meals in the days before testing positive Thursday, including with members
    of his centrist party and rival politicians, while French
    people are currently advised to avoid gatherings larger than six people. 

    His office has been contacting those present
    for the meals, but told some people sitting far from the
    president that they were not considered at risk.

    Macron office isn’t providing details of his treatment.

    He is staying at the presidential residence of La Lanterne
    in the former royal city of Versailles, tucked
    in a grove tightly guarded by police.

    Macron’s positive test comes as French health authorities are again seeing a rise
    in infections and are warning of more as French families prepare
    to get together for Christmas and New Year festivities. 

    France reported another 18,254 new infections Thursday and its death toll is just under 60,000.

    France’s Pasteur Institute released a study Friday suggesting that meal times at home and in public are a major source of contamination. 

    Pasteur epidemiologist Arnaud Fontanet said on France-Inter radio Friday
    that during the holidays, ‘we can see each other, simply not be too numerous,
    and at critical moments at meals, not too many people at
    the same table.’ 

    France recorded more than 17,000 new cases on Wednesday and
    another 18,254 on Thursday – sparking concern as people shop and travel more ahead of the Christmas holidays

    France’s virus death toll is just under 60,000. The virus
    has resurfaced in France – as across the
    rest of Europe – and there are grave fears that deaths could spike in the colder winter months 

    Macron took a test ‘as soon as the first symptoms appeared’ on Thursday morning and will self-isolate for seven days, in line with national health authorities’ recommendations, the presidency said.  

    The French health minister suggested that Macron might have been infected at the EU summit in Brussels last week, but Macron had multiple meetings in Paris as well.

    France had Europe’s first virus case in January, but Macron’s
    government came under criticism for not having enough masks or tests and not confining the population quickly enough. 

    A strict two-month lockdown brought infections down, and France sent
    children back to school and their parents back to work.

    But infections surged again this autumn so he declared a new,
    softer lockdown in October aimed at relieving pressure on hospitals. 

    The measures were relaxed slightly this week, though restaurants, tourist sites, gyms and some other
    facilities remain closed.   

    Emmanuel MacronCovid-19

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  19. Words that can be made from the letters in ‘spring’ are:

    gin

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  27. Diogo Jota is a fresh fitness doubt for Liverpool’s trip
    to Brentford in what would be a blow for the Portuguese forward after his substitute goal
    against Nottingham Forest on Tuesday.

    The striker, 28, missed just shy of two months with a chest injury recently and has featured off
    the bench in the Reds’ last six league fixtures but his only
    start came against Accrington Stanley in the FA Cup.

    And Jota, who scored with his first touch as a substitute at
    Forest in the 1-1 draw, has now suffered another setback
    with Arne Slot admitting it will be a ‘struggle’ for him to feature on the tricky trip to west London on Saturday.

    ‘There’s no doubt about the fact that Jota is an important
    player for us,’ said the boss on Friday morning. ‘He was not in training
    yesterday [Thursday] so we have to see where he is today.

    ‘I am not sure that he will be available
    for tomorrow. We have to wait and see. He felt a little niggle during the half-hour he was on (against Forest), he could finish the game but afterwards he complained a bit
    about it.

    ‘That’s why he didn’t train on Thursday. We have to see if he is available today and tomorrow.
    It will be a struggle to have him on the pitch tomorrow but we are hoping to see him in the near
    future.’

    Diogo Jota is a fresh fitness doubt for Liverpool ‘s trip to Brentford in what
    would be a blow for the Portuguese forward

    Reds boss Arne Slot revealed that Jota didn’t
    train with the rest of the squad on Thursday

    Jota rescued Liverpool a midweek draw against Nottingham
    Forest after scoring off the bench

    The Premier League leaders are also not guaranteed to have fellow forward
    Luis Diaz in their ranks after the Colombian reported a sore throat and illness this week, also skipping training on Thursday. 

    As things stand, though, Diaz would be expected to recover and travel to Brentford.

    Given Jota’s injury record and Darwin Nunez’s lack of form, Slot and Co have not made
    a full decision on whether fellow striker Jayden Danns will go
    out on loan this month.

    Several Championship clubs are keeping an eye on the 19-year-old.

    LondonLiverpoolArne SlotNottingham Forest

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  33. Louisiana Gov and Republican presidential candidate Bobby Jindal has
    stood by his controversial remarks in which he blamed the
    mass shooting at Umpqua Community College in Oregon on the shooter’s father. 

    In a blog post on his campaign website, Jindal said Chris Harper-Mercer’s father, Ian Mercer, is ‘the problem’ and
    that he ‘should be embarrassed to even show his face in public’. 

    After facing criticism for his comments, he stood by his
    claims on Sunday during a televised interview. 

    Jindal claims that the October 1 shooting, which left ten people dead including Harper-Mercer,
    occurred partly because Ian Mercer was not in his son’s life. 

    Bobby Jindal, pictured here in September, said on Sunday that the Oregon shooting at Umpqua Community College should be
    blamed on the gunman’s father

    Gunman Chris Harper-Mercer lived with his mother and hadn’t been in contact with his father,
    Ian Mercer, who claims he didn’t know his son owned guns

    ‘The killer’s father is now lecturing us on the need for
    gun control and he says he has no idea how or where his son got the guns,’ Jindal wrote on his blog.
    ‘Of course he doesn’t know. You know why he doesn’t know? 

    ‘Because he is not, and has never been in his son’s life.
    He is a complete failure as a father, he should be embarrassed to even show his face in public.
    He’s the problem here.’

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    Though Jindal received backlash following his comments, he doubled down on Sunday during an interview with ABC News saying Ian Mercer
    has no right to lecture Americans on gun control. 

    ‘We’ve got a culture that doesn’t value life. We’ve got millions of boys growing up without father figures, without that guidance at home,
    ‘ he said. 

    Speaking to ABC, Jindall called Ian Mercer ‘a complete failure as a father’ criticizing the man for not being in his son’s life.
    He claimed Mercer ‘doesn’t need to be lecturing us on gun control’

    undefined

    He added: ‘Too often these shooters are misguided young
    men. So you’ve got Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, now this shooter’s father lecturing us on the need for gun control. 

    ‘He doesn’t need to be lecturing us. He by his own admission didn’t know how his son got those guns, didn’t know how many guns his son had. 

    ‘By his own admission wasn’t involved in his son’s life, hadn’t been communicating with him
    since he was living with his mother. He doesn’t need
    to be lecturing us on gun control. 

    ‘We need to fix our culture. We need a renaissance of decency, we need a spiritual revival
    in this country. Passing more laws to take away the rights of law-abiding Americans won’t
    solve this problem, won’t stop the next massacre, won’t stop the
    next tragedy.’

    He also told ABC that there is a ‘moral decay going on in our culture’, that has led to too much
    violence in movies, TV, video games and music.
     

    THE 2016 FIELD: WHO’S IN, WHO’S QUIT AND WHO’S STILL THINKING IT OVER

    A whopping 20 people from America’s two major political parties are candidates in the
    2016 presidential election.

    The field includes two women, an African-American and two Latinos.
    All but one in that group – Hillary Clinton – are
    Republicans.

    At 15 candidates, the GOP field is without two early dropouts but still deeper than ever
    after one current and one former governor bowed out.

    A few Democrats are still assessing their chances at succeeding
    in a much smaller group of five that includes a former secretary of state and a
    current senator.

    REPUBLICANS IN THE RACE 

     

    Jeb Bush       Former Florida governor

    Age on Election Day: 63

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Moderates                

    Résumé: Former Florida governor and secretary of state.
    Former co-chair of the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy.

    Education: B.A. University of Texas at Austin.

    Family: Married to Columba Bush (1974), with three adult children. Noelle Bush has made news with
    her struggle with drug addiction, and related arrests. George P.
    Bush was elected Texas land commissioner in 2014. Jeb’s father George H.W.
    Bush was the 41st President of the United States, and his brother George W.
    Bush was number 43.

    Claim to fame: Jeb was an immensely popular governor with strong economic and jobs credentials.
    He is also one of just two GOP candidates who is fluent in Spanish.

    Achilles heel: Bush has angered conservatives with his permissive positions on illegal immigration (saying
    some border-crossing is ‘an act of love) and common-core education standards.
    His last name could also be a liability with voters who fear establishing a
    family dynasty in the White House.

    Chris Christie        New Jersey governor

    Age on Election Day: 54

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Establishment-minded conservatives

    Résumé: Governor of New Jersey. Former U.S.
    Attorney for the District of New Jersey. Former Morris County freeholder
    and lobbyist.

    Governor of New Jersey. Former U.S. Attorney
    for the District of New Jersey. Former Morris County freeholder.
    Former statehouse lobbyist.

    Education: B.A. University of Delaware, Newark, J.D. Seton Hall University.

    Family: Married to Mary Pat Foster (1986) with four
    children.

    Claim to fame: Pugnacious and unapologetic, Christie once told
    a heckler to ‘sit down and shut up’ and brings
    a brash style to everything he does. That includes the post-9/11
    criminal prosecutions of terror suspects that made his reputation as a hard-charger.

    Achilles heel: Christie is often accused of embracing an ego-driven and
    needlessly abrasive style. His administration continues to
    operate under a ‘Bridgegate’ cloud: At least two aides have
    been indicted in an alleged scheme to shut down lanes leading to the George Washington Bridge as political retribution for a
    mayor who refused to endorse the governor’s re-election.

    Carly Fiorina         Former tech CEO

    Age on Election Day: 62

    Religion:      Episcopalian 

    Base: Conservatives

    Résumé: Former CEO of Hewett-Packard. Former group president of Lucent
    Technologies. Former U.S. Senate candidate in California.

    Education: B.A. Stanford University. UCLA School of Law (did not finish).
    M.B.A. University of Maryland. M.Sci. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

    Family: Married to Frank Fiorina (1985), with one adult step-daughter and another who is deceased.

    She has two step-grandchildren. Divorced from Todd Bartlem (1977-1984).

    Claim to fame: Fiorina was the first woman to lead a Fortune 20 company, something that could
    provide ammunition against the Democratic Party’s drive to make Hillary Clinton the first female president.
    She is also the only woman in the 2016 GOP field, making her the one Republican who
    can’t be accused of sexism.

    Achilles heel: Fiorina’s unceremonious firing by HP’s board has led to
    questions about her management and leadership styles. And her only political experience has been a failed Senate bid in 2010 against Barbara Boxer.

    Lindsey Graham  South Carolina senator

    Age on Election Day: 61

    Religion:        Southern Baptist

    Base: Otherwise moderate war hawks 

    Résumé: U.S. senator. Retired Air Force Reserves colonel.
    Former congressman. Former South Carolina state representative.

    Education: B.A. University of South Carolina. J.D. University of South
    Carolina Law School.

    Family: Never married. Raised his sister Darline after their parents
    died while he was a college student and she was 13.

    Claim to fame: Graham is a hawk’s hawk, arguing consistently for greater intervention in the Middle East,
    once arguing in favor of pre-emptive military strikes against Iran. His influence was
    credited for pushing President George W. Bush to institute the 2007 military ‘surge’
    in Iraq.

    Achilles heel: Some of his critics have taken to call him
    ‘Grahamnesty,’ citing his participating in a 2013 ‘gang of eight’ strategy
    to approve an Obama-favored immigration bill.
    He has also aroused the ire of conservative Republicans by supporting global warming legislation and voting for some
    of the president’s judicial nominees.

    Bobby Jindal     Louisiana governor

    Age on Election Day: 45

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Social conservatives 

    Résumé: Governor of Louisiana. Former congressman. Former Assistant Secretary of Health and Human Services for Planning and Evaluation. Former Secretary of the Louisiana Department of Health and
    Hospitals.

    Education: B. Sci. Brown University. M.Litt. New College at Oxford University

    Family: Married to Supriya Jolly (1997), with three children, each of whom has an Indian first
    name and an American middle name. Bobby Jindal’s given name is Piyush.

    Claim to fame: Jindal’s main source of national attention has been his strident opposition to federal-level ‘Common Core’
    education standards, which included a federal lawsuit that a
    judge dismissed in late March. He is also outspoken on the religious-freedom issues involved in mainstreaming
    gay marriage into the lives of American Christians.

    Achilles heel: During his first term as governor, Jindal signed a science education law that
    requires schools to present alternatives to the theory of evolution, including religious creationism.
    His staunch defense of businesses that want to steer clear
    of providing services to same-sex couples at their weddings will win points among evangelicals but alienate
    others.

    George Pataki      Former New York governor 

    Age on Election Day: 71 

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Centrists

    Résumé: Former governor of New York. Former New York state senator and state assemblyman. Former mayor of Peekskill, NY.

    Education: B.A. Yale University. J.D. Columbia Law School.

    Family: Married to Libby Rowland (1973), with four
    adult children.

    Claim to fame: Pataki was just the third Republican governor in New York’s history, winning an improbable victory over three-term
    incumbent Mario Cuomo in 1994. He was known for being a rare tax-cutter in Albany and was also the
    sitting governor when the 9/11 terror attacks rocked New York CIty in 2001.

    Achilles heel: While Pataki’s liberal-leaning social agenda plays well in the Empire State, it won’t win him any fans among the GOP’s
    conservative base. He supports abortion rights and gay
    rights, and has advocated strongly in favor of government intervention to stop global
    warming, which right-wingers believe is overblown as a global threat.

    Marco Rubio         Florida senator

    Age on Election Day: 45

    Religion:          Catholic

    Base: Conservatives

    Résumé: US senator, former speaker of the Florida House of Representatives,
    former city commissioner of West Miami

    Education: B.A. University of Florida. J.D. University of Miami School
    of Law.

    Family: Married to Jeanette Dousdebes (1998), with two sons
    and two daughters. Jeanette is a former Miami Dolphins cheerleader who posed for the squad’s first
    swimsuit calendar. 

    Claim to fame: Rubio’s personal story as the son of Cuban emigres is a powerful narrative,
    and helped him win his Senate seat in 2010 against a well-funded
    governor whom he initially trailed by 20 points.

    Achilles heel: Rubio was part of a bipartisan ‘gang of eight’ senators who crafted an Obama-approved immigration reform bill in 2013 which never became
    law – a move that angered conservative Republicans.
    And he was criticized in 2011 for publicly telling
    a version of his parents’ flight from Cuba that turned out to
    appear embellished.

    Donald Trump     Real estate developer

    Age on Election Day: 70

    Religion:     Presbyterian 

    Base: Conservatives   

    Résumé: Chairman of The Trump Organization. Fixture on the Forbes
    400 list of the world’s richest people. Star of ‘Celebrity Apprentice.’

    Education: B.Sci. Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania

    Family: Married to Melania Trump (2005). Divorced from Ivana Zelníčková (1977-92) and
    Marla Maples(1993-99). Five grown children. Trump’s father Fred Trump amassed a $400 million fortune developing real estate.

    Claim to fame: Trump’s niche in the 2016 campaign stems from his celebrity as a reality-show host and his enormous wealth – more than $10 billion, according to Trump.
    Because he can self-fund an entire presidential campaign, he is seen as less beholden to donors than other
    candidates. He has grabbed the attention of reporters and commentators by unapologetically staking out controversial positions and refusing to budge in the face
    of criticism.

    Achilles heel: Trump is a political neophyte who has
    toyed with running for president and for governor of New York, but shied away from taking
    the plunge until now. His billions also have the potential to
    alienate large swaths of the electorate. And his Republican rivals have labeled him
    an ego-driven celeb and an electoral sideshow because of his all-over-the-map policy
    history – much of which agreed with today’s today’s democrats – and his past enthusiasm for anti-Obama ‘birtherism.’

    Ben Carson       Retired Physician

    Age on Election Day: 65

    Religion:              Seventh-day Adventist

    Base: Evangelicals

    Résumé: Famous pediatric neurosurgeon, youngest person to
    head a major Johns Hopkins Hospital division. Founder of the Carson Scholars Fund, which awards scholarships to
    children of good character.

    Education: B.A. Yale University. M.D. University of
    Michigan Medical School.

    Family: Married to Candy Carson (1975), with three adult sons.

    The Carsons live in Maryland with Ben’s elderly mother Sonya, who was a seminal influence on his life
    and development. 

    Claim to fame: Carson spoke at a National Prayer Breakfast in 2013, railing against political correctness
    and condemned Obamacare – with President Obama sitting just a few feet away.

    Achilles heel: Carson is inflexibly conservative, opposing gay marriage and once saying gay attachments formed
    in prison provided evidence that sexual orientation is a choice.

    Ted Cruz            Texas senator

    Age on Election Day: 45

    Religion:         Southern Baptist

    Base: Tea partiers

    Résumé:U.S. senator. Former Texas solicitor general.
    Former U.S. Supreme Court clerk. Former associate deputy attorney
    general under President George W. Bush.

    Education: B.A. Princeton University. J.D. Harvard Law School.

    Family: Married to Heidi Nelson Cruz (2001), with two young daughters.

    His father is a preacher and he has two half-sisters.

    Claim to fame: Cruz spoke on the Senate floor for more than 21 hours in September 2013 to protest the inclusion of funding for Obamacare in a federal budget bill.

    (The bill moved forward as written.) He has called for the complete repeal of the medical insurance overhaul law, and also for a dismantling of the Internal
    Revenue Service. Cruz is also outspoken about border security.

    Achilles heel: Cruz’s father Rafael, a Texas preacher,
    is a tea party firebrand who has said gay marriage is a government conspiracy and called President Barack Obama a Marxist who should ‘go
    back to Kenya.’ Cruz himself also has a reputation as a take-no-prisoners
    Christian evangelical, which might play well in South Carolina but won’t win him
    points in the other early primary states and could cost him momentum if he should be the GOP’s
    presidential nominee.

    Jim Gilmore     Former Virginia governor

    Age on Election Day: 67

    Religion: United Methodist

        Base: Conservatives

    Résumé: Former governor and attorney general of Virginia.
    Former chairman of the Republican National Committee. Former U.S.
    Army intelligence agent. President and CEO of the Free Congress Foundation. Board member of the National
    Rifle Association

    Education: B.A. University of Virginia.

    Family: Married to Roxane Gatling Gilmore (1977), with two adult children. Mrs.
    GIlmore is a survivor of Hodgkin’s lymphoma

    Claim to fame: Gilmore presided over Virginia when the 9/11 terrorists struck in 1991,
    guiding the state through a difficult economic
    downturn after one of the hijacked airliners crashed into
    the Pentagon. He is nest known in Virginia for
    eliminating most of a much-maligned personal property tax on automobiles, working with a Democratic-controlled state legislature to get it passed and enacted.

    Achilles heel: Gilmore is the only GOP or Democratic candidate for president who has been the chairman of his political party,
    giving him a rap as an ‘establishment’ candidate.
    A social-conservative crusader, he is loathed by the left for
    championing the state law that established 24-hour waiting periods for abortions.
    Gilmore also has a reputation as an indecisive campaigner, having
    dropped out of the 2008 presidential race in July 2007. 

    Mike Huckabee     Former Arkansas governor

    Age on Election Day: 61

    Religion: Southern Baptist 

    Base: Evangelicals

    Résumé: Former governor and lieutenant governor
    of Arkansas. Former Fox News Channel host.

    Ordained minister and author.

    Education: B.A. Ouachita Baptist University.
    Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (did not finish). 

    Family: Married to Janet Huckabee (1974), with three adult children. Mrs.
    Huckabee is a survivor of spinal cancer.

    Claim to fame: ‘Huck’ is a political veteran and has run for president before, winning
    the Iowa Caucuses in 2008 and finishing second for the GOP nomination behind John McCain. He’s known as
    an affable Christian and succeeded in building a huge following on his weekend television program, in which he frequently sat in on the electric bass
    with country & western groups and other ‘wholesome’ musical entertainers.

    Achilles heel: Huckabee may have a problem with female voters.

    He complained in 2014 about Obamacare’s mandatory contraception coverage, saying Democrats want women to ‘believe that they are helpless without Uncle Sugar.’ He earned more scorn for hawking herbal
    supplements in early-2015 infomercials as a diabetes cure,
    something he has yet to disavow despite disagreement from medical experts.

    John Kasich       Ohio governor 

    Age on Election Day: 64 

    Religion: Anglican

    Base: Centrists 

    Résumé: Governor of New York. Former chairman of the U.S.
    House Budget Committee. Former Ohio congressman. Former
    Ohio state senator.

    Education: B.A. The Ohio State University.

    Family: Married to Karen Waldbillig (1997). Divorced from Mary Lee
    Griffith (1975-1980).

    Claim to fame: Kasich was Ohio youngest-ever member of the state legislature
    at age 25. He’s known for a compassionate and working-class
    sensibility that appeals to both ends of the political spectrum.
    In the 1990s when Newt Gingrich led a Republican revolution that took over
    Congress, Kasich became the chairman of the House Budget Committee – a position for a wonk’s wonk who understands the nuanced intricacies
    of how government runs.

    Achilles heel: Some of Kasich’s political positions
    rankle conservatives, including his choice to expand
    Ohio’s Medicare system under the Obamacare law, and his support for the much-derided ‘Common Core’ education standards
    program. 

     

    Rand Paul      Kentucky senator

    Age on Election Day: 53

    Religion: Presbyterian 

    Base: Libertarians 

    Résumé: US senator. Board-certified ophthalmologist. Former congressional campaign manager for his father Ron Paul.

    Education: Baylor University (did not finish). M.D.
    Duke University School of Medicine.

    Family: Married to Kelley Ashby (1990), with three sons.
    His father is a former Texas congressman who ran for president three times but never got close to grabbing the brass ring.

    Claim to fame: Paul embraces positions that are at odds with most in the GOP, including an anti-interventionist foreign policy, reduced military spending, criminal drug sentencing reform for African-Americans and strict limits on government electronic
    surveillance – including a clampdown on the National Security Agency.

    Achilles heel: Paul’s politics are aligned with those of his father, whom mainstream GOPers saw as
    kooky. Both Pauls have advocated for a brand of libertarianism that
    forces government to stop domestic surveillance
    programs and limits foreign military interventions.

    Rick Santorum     Former Penn. senator

    Age on Election Day: 58

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Evangelicals 

    Résumé: Former US senator and former member of
    the House of Representatives from Pennsylvania. Former lobbyist who represented
    World Wrestling Entertainment.

    Education: B.A. Penn State University. M.B.A.
    University of Pittsburgh. J.D. Penn State University Dickinson School of Law.

    Family: Married to Karen Santorum (1990), with seven living children. One
    baby was stillborn in 1996. Another, named Isabella, is a special needs child with a genetic disorder.

    Claim to fame: Santorum won the 2012 Republican Iowa Caucuses by a nose.
    He won by visiting all of Iowa’s 99 states in a pickup
    truck belonging to his state campaign director, a consultant who now worls for Donald Trump.

    Achilles heel: As a young lobbyist, Santorum
    persuaded the federal government to exempt pro wrestling from regulations governing the use of
    anabolic steroids. And the stridently conservative politician has attracted
    strong opposition from gay rights groups. One gay columnist held
    a contest to redefine his name, buying the ‘santorum.com’ domain to advertise the winning entry
    – which is too vulgar to print.

     

    REPUBLICAN DROPOUTS

    Rick Perry, former Texas governor

         (withdrew Sept. 11, 2015)

    Scott Walker, Wisconsin governor

         (withdrew Sept. 21, 2015)

     

     

     

    DEMOCRATS IN THE RACE 

     

    Lincoln Chafee  Former Rhode Island governor

    Age on Election Day: 63

    Religion:  Episcopalian                        
              Base: Centrists

    Résumé: Former Rhode Island governor. Former U.S.
    senator. Former city councilman and mayor of Warwick,
    RI.

    Education: B.A. Brown University. Graduate, Montana State University horseshoeing school.

    Family: Married to Stephanie Chafee (1990) with three children. Like him, his
    father John Chafee was a Rhode Island governor and US senator,
    but also served as Secretary of the Navy. Lincoln was appointed
    to his Senate seat when his father died in office.

    Claim to fame: While Chafee was a Republican senator during the George W.
    Bush administration, he cast his party’s only vote in 2002 against a
    resolution that authorized military action in Iraq.

    Hillary Clinton, also a senator then, voted in favor – giving him a point of comparison that he hopes to ride to victory.

    Achilles heel: Chafee’s lack of any significant party loyalty has turned allies into foes throughout his political career, and Democrats aren’t sure he’s entirely with them now.
    He was elected to the Senate as a Republican in 2000 but left the party
    and declared himself a political independent after losing a re-election bid in 2006.
    As an independent, he was elected governor in 2010.
    Now he’s running for president as a Democrat.

     

    Martin O’Malley    Former Maryland governor

    Age on Election Day: 53

    Religion: Catholic

    Base: Centrists 

    Résumé:Former Maryland governor. Former city councilor and mayor of Baltimore,
    MD. Former Assistant U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia.

    Education: B.A. Catholic University of America.

    J.D. University of Maryland.

    Family: Married to Katie Curran (1990) and they have four children. Curran is a district court judge in Baltimore.
    Her father is Maryland’s attorney general. O’Malley’s mother is a
    receptionists in the Capitol Hill office of Democratic Sen. Barbara Mikulski.

    Claim to fame: O’Malley pushed for laws in Maryland legalizing same-sex marriage
    and giving illegal immigrants the right to pay reduced tuition rates at public universities.
    But he’s best known for playing guitar and sung in a celtic band cammed ‘O’Malley’s March.’

    Achilles heel: O’Malley may struggle in the Democratic primary since he endorsed Hillary
    Clinton eight years ago. If he prevails, he will have to run far enough to
    her left to be an easy target for the GOP. He showed political weakness when his hand-picked successor lost
    the 2014 governor’s race to a Republican. But most troubling is his link with Baltimore, whose 2016 race riots have made it a nuclear subject for politicians
    of all stripes.

    Jim Webb      Former Virginia senator

    Age on Election Day: 70

    Religion: Christian (nondenominational)            
                    Base: War hawks and economic centrists

    Résumé:Former U.S. senator from Virginia. Former U.S.
    Secretary of the Navy under Ronamd Reagan. Former Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs.

    Education: B.A. US Naval Academy (transferred from the University of Southern California).
    J.D. Georgetown University.

    Family: Married to Hong Le Webb (2005). Divorced from Jo Ann Krukar (1981-2004).
    Divorced from Barbara Samorajczyk (1968-1979). 

    Claim to fame: Webb is the rare Democrat who can bring both robust defense credentials
    and a history of genuine bipartisanship to the race. He served in Republican president Ronald Reagan’s defense directorate as Navy secretary, and earned both the Navy Star and the Purple Heart in combat.
    Webb is also seen as a quiet scholar who has written more than a half-dozen historical novels and a critically acclaimed history of Scots-Irish U.S.

    immigrants.

    Achilles heel: Webb has a reputation as a bit of a quitter.
    He resigned his Navy secretary post over a budget-cut dispute just 10 months after taking the job,
    and he declined to run for re-election to the U.S.
    Senate in 2006. He also attracted bad press for defending the use
    of the Confederate flag as a heritage symbol for American southerners.
    Amid a nationwide clamor to remove the flag from the South Carolina statehouse grounds,
    he wrote that Americans should ‘respect the complicated history
    of the Civil War. … Honorable Americans fought on both sides.’

    Hillary Clinton Former sec. of state

    Age on Election Day: 69

    Religion: United Methodist 

    Base: Liberals 

    Résumé:Former secretary of state. Former U.S. senator from New York.
    Former U.S. first lady. Former Arkansas first lady. Former law school
    faculty, University of Arkansas Fayetteville.

    Education: B.A. Wellesley College. J.D. Yale Law School.

    Family: Married to Bill Clinton (1975), the 42nd President of
    the United States. Their daughter Chelsea is
    married to investment banker Marc Mezvinsky, whose mother was a 1990s one-term Pennsylvania congresswoman.

    Claim to fame: Clinton was the first US first lady with a postgraduate degree and presaged Obamacare with a failed attempt at health care reform in the 1990s.

    Achilles heel: A long series of financial and ethical scandals has dogged Clinton, including recent allegations
    that her husband and their family foundation benefited financially from decisions she made as secretary of state.
    Her performance surrounding the 2012 terror attack on a State Department
    facility in Benghazi, Libya, has been catnip for conservative Republicans.

    And her presidential campaign has been marked by an unwillingness
    to engage journalists, instead meeting with hand-picked groups of voters.

     

    Bernie Sanders*  Vermont senator

    Age on Election Day: 75

    Religion: Jewish

    Base: Far-left progressives

    Résumé:U.S. senator. Former U.S. congressman. Former mayor of Burlington,
    VT.

    Education: B.A. University of Chicago.

    Family: Married to Jane O’Meara Sanders (1988), a
    former president of Burlington College. He has one child from a
    previous relationship and is stepfather to three from Mrs.
    Sanders’ previous marriage. His brother Larry is a Green Party politician in the UK and formerly
    served on the Oxfordshire County Council.

    Claim to fame: Sanders is an unusually blunt, and
    unapologetic pol, happily promoting progressivism without hedging.
    He is also the longest-serving ‘independent’ member of Congress – neither Democrat nor
    Republican.

    Achilles heel: Sanders describes himself as a ‘democratic socialist.’ At a time of huge GOP electoral gains, his far-left ideas don’t poll well.
    He favors open borders, single-payer universal health insurance, and greater
    government control over media ownership.

    * Sanders is running as a Democrat but has no party affiliation in the Senate.

    DEMOCRATS IN THE HUNT 

    Joe Biden, U.S. vice president

    Biden would be a natural candidate as the White House’s sitting second-banana,
    but his reputation as a one-man gaffe factory could keep Democrats from taking him seriously.

    Elizabeth Warren, Massachusetts senator

    Warren is a populist liberal who could give Hillary Clinton headaches by
    challenging her from the left, but she has said she has no plans to run and is happy in the U.S.
    Senate.

      

     

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