Preface

Great research or analysis only leads to good decisions when it is well communicated to decision-makers. Across years of teaching marketing research/analytics Dr. Ellen spent almost as much time teaching students to effectively communicate their results as teaching them to collect quality data and analyze it properly. She knew this was a need shared by many students – not just those studying marketing. So, teaming with her colleague Linda Willis, they created this web module (e-book). It is a “best practices“ guide for those who want to stand out as great researchers who can help people use their hard work to make good decisions. Collaborating with a great team of instructional designers and Will Taylor, graphic designer, for the cover design, they bring you this resource/e-book to achieve the reputation you deserve.

About Authors

Pam Scholder Ellen, Ph.D. is associate professor of Marketing in the Robinson College of Business at Georgia State University. Fueled by a life-long interest in the power of words, she earned a Bachelors of Arts in journalism/mass communications from Auburn University. Knowing that you must have good information to tell a story, she pursued a Masters in Marketing Research at Auburn and then completed her Ph.D. in Marketing/Consumer Psychology at the University of South Carolina. She teaches at all academic levels from undergraduate to doctorate, as well as executives, primarily in marketing research/analytics and buyer behavior. This includes international teaching for Aston University Business School, Birmingham, England; Toulouse Business School and Sorbonne Business School, France; and Korea University Business School, Seoul, Korea.

Her experience includes serving as President and member of the American Marketing Association (AMA) Academic Council, her discipline’s highest board and served on many Editorial Review Boards for marketing journals. Her own research – published in 17 different journals -- addresses the power of messages to affect people’s beliefs, attitudes and actions. Businesses, not-for-profits and law firms rely on her research and communication skills to support their decision-making.

Linda P. Willis is a professional editor for business and medical journals and a writer who has taught college writing and speaking courses since 1988, when she completed her Master of Communication (M.Co.) degree in speech at Georgia State University.

Willis believes that reading widely and proficiently provides the foundation for writing and speaking effectively. When instructors support online resources, such as this eBook, as a way for students to improve their writing skills, they can influence professional development well into the students’ careers.

Chapter 1

Why it matters

Excellent writing skills help you stand out from the crowd. Employers and clients demand strong communication skills. In a 2006 survey conducted for the Association of American Colleges and Universities,

73% of executives said colleges and universities should place more emphasis on effective oral and written communication skills.

70% called for more training in the ability to locate, organize, and evaluate information from multiple sources.

Effective writing skills offer an opportunity to differentiate yourself from other employees.

Good writing is a wonderful way to differentiate yourself inside a company,’ Sam Hill says. ‘Back when I was competing with all those other aggressive young associates at Booz Allen, all of us in the same charcoal-gray Jos. A. Bank suits and faux Hermes ties, I used the ability to express myself clearly to get myself noticed. I used to work for hours at home secretly writing and rewriting reports until they were logical and stylistic masterpieces. The next afternoon, I’d drop them on my partner’s desk casually and do my best to create the implication that I”d just dashed them off – and hopefully create the impression in his mind that I was effortlessly brilliant. It must have worked: I made partner.’ The write stuff works.

How Should Colleges Prepare Students to Succeed in Today’s Global Economy?

The Association of American Universities and College 2006

Excellent writing skills help you stand out from the crowd.

Section 1.1

The Negative Impact of Poor Writing

Dissatisfiy Clients

Warren Buffett, billionaire investor and Chairman of Berkshire Hathaway, says that he’s: “been unable to decipher just what is being said or, worse yet, had to conclude that nothing was being said. . . . [A] well-intentioned and informed writer simply fails to get the message across to an intelligent, interested reader. . . . [S]tilted jargon and complex constructions are usually the villains. . . . [F]ree yourself of those impediments to effective communication. . . . and you will be amazed at how much smarter your readers will think you have become.” 1

Waste Time and Effort

Poor writing wastes time and effort and results in missed opportunities for you and your client or company.

Section 1.2

How this Resource can Help You

​

Good Writing Leads to Success

To be successful, business professionals must be able to translate among three languages: prose, pictures and mathematics. Students must be fluent in at least two of these to comprehend and translate materials into less technical, but correct, language. 2

Using this Resource

Students should learn to:

Plan and design effective research reports that are written in plain English, and communicate clearly the methods, analysis and results in numbers, words, charts and graphs to audiences with varying expertise and skills.

Using a step-by-step approach to writing effective research reports, this module provides students with:

Guidelines to critique and improve their own

Links to credible resources for more in-depth exploration of topics

Examples of more and less effective approaches

Access to training sites that will improve their skills

1. Preface to the SEC’s A Plain English Handbook (p.1)

2. The Teaching Mentoring Handbook by Harvey J. Brightman, Regents’ Professor Emeritus of Managerial Sciences, Georgia State University (Version 1.9)

Chapter 2

Organization

The purpose of a research report is to objectively present the results of research and analysis in an unbiased manner to improve decision-making.

A research report delivers information; it is not intended to persuade the reader or to act as a sales pitch. A research report should not “spin” the results; the results are what they are. Report the results and let the audience decide how to use them.

A research report provides results; it is not intended to entertain. Variation for the sake of variety is not desirable.

A research report is not intended to generate solutions or ideas, unless specifically requested.

Justice Picture by Jamie Hamilton from the Noun Project

section 2.1

Process for Creating a Research Report

​
Process for creating a research report

Translate

As shown in the model, the first stage is to:

understand the situation, and,

translate business questions to questions that can be researched and answered in a given report.

These questions become the Objectives of the research and answering them becomes the focus of the report.Collect & Analyze Data

The next stage is to address the objectives by collecting, synthesizing, analyzing, and interpreting data.

Regardless of the type or source of the data, the report should establish that the results are based on:

rigorous methods,

credible sources, and

defensible analysis and interpretation.

Organize Fidings

Next, the writer organizes results, or findings, to be consistent with the state objectives of the research report.

This means taking the reader’s (audience’s) perspective to create a logical flow of evidence to address the Objectives. The report should deliver…

all the information they need

at the time they need it

… for the audience to judge the credibility of the research. This means clearly differentiating what is fact and what is opinion, whether yours or others’.Inform Your Reader

Finally, the report must be written clearly and with sufficient detail so that readers know:

the objectives of the report

what you did to provide answers

what you found, and

how the evidence can be used to improve their decision-making.

To develop an effective report, the writer must be able to see how other people might misinterpret or misunderstand the writer’s meaning.

section 2.2

Section Content

​

Report Content

The specific style and sections of a research report will vary by discipline. Consult examples in your discipline for expected styles. The example below provides descriptions of common sections generally included in research reports.

Cover Page(s)

Executive Summary

Table of Contents

Background

Problem/Opportunity Definition

Research Objectives

Action Standard

Research Methods

Research Results

Managerial Implications

Appendices

Acknowledge Sources

Photo By Galymzhan Abdugalimov

Purposes of Sections

The purpose of sections, headings and subheadings is to help both the writer and the reader.

For the writer, they serve as a guide to cover all important elements of a research report. They also serve as an organizing tool. They encourage the writer to put all related material together.

For the reader, they serve as a content guide. Labeled sections and extensive use of headings and subheadings within each section help the reader navigate the document.

Putting related materials together is important but so is providing the reader with relevant information where it is needed. Repetition across sections means the reader will not have to flip back and forth or try to memorize materials located on previous pages. Also readers commonly pull apart a document, keeping only sections that are relevant to them. To ensure that all information needed to interpret any section is contained within that section, repeat purposely.

Importantly, a particular report might not explicitly include the sections described here. However, the content of those sections should be included.

section 2.3

Content Sections

Cover Page

Cover Page refers to the title page of the document.

The Cover Page material includes:

A descriptive title that clearly identifies the content and the context, (i.e., company or industry, period of time) of the report, letting the reader know quickly its relevance to a decision;

Names of the people responsible for the report’s content, and may also include the sponsoring company name, contact information and description; and the

Date of the report.

Cover Page sometimes refers to additional pages that may include disclaimers, disclosures, or terminology and definitions. Check standard practice in your company or industry.

Disclaimers limit the uses of or responsibility for results. For example, a disclaimer may identify that the results are the sole responsibility of an individual (as opposed to a company). It also may limit use of the results, defining them as confidential, for internal use only, or used only through licensing.

Disclosures may be required by legal or regulatory groups. Disclosures are caveats—a warning or caution in using the report. These statements may include disclosing relationships among persons or companies with possible vested interests. Disclosures might also include other details, such as rates of return or Annual Percentage Rate, are estimates.

Gallery 2.1

Example- Cover Page 1

Example- Cover Page 2

Executive Summary

An Executive Summary covers the highlights of the report. It’s a “mini-report” of exactly what the report covers and its findings.

The Executive Summary is not meant only for high-level executives, but for anyone interested in the report’s contents.

For the reader, the Executive Summary:

Quickly tells what the report covers and the key findings of the project;

Gives an incentive to see the evidence behind the key findings; and

Provides a quick reference after the reader has reviewed and judged the quality of the evidence.

Write the Executive Summary after the report is finished. You can copy the key points from the report itself to mirror the structure of the report. Consider using the same section headings within the report. As a guideline, the summary should be at least one page but no more than about 10% of the total pages in the report. If the report is 20 pages, the summary should be about two pages.

Write in a concise—but thorough—fashion. Cover the main questions of “who did what, when, where, and how” and the key findings of any analysis. Avoid technical language. Stick to what is covered in the report. The results and insights should compel the reader to read the rest of the report.

Gallery 2.2

Example- Executive Summary

Table of Contents

The Table of Contents guides the reader to the specific information in the report. It is a sequential listing of the contents with sufficient detail so that readers can find the exact content for which they are looking. It includes major sections and may include other headings. For example, the Results section might include references to each of the objectives addressed or even to individual survey questions. 

Create the Table of Contents last. At that time, you will have determined the final titles of sections, headings and subheadings, and the associated page numbers.

Gallery 2.3

Example- Table of Contents

Background

The Background describes the facts that are relevant to your project’s purpose. Background may include a description of the business, its products, services, and processes as necessary to understand the current decision or situation.

The Background also serves to tell clients that you understand their business and their current situation.

The description of the business should be a statement of fact and not the client’s mission, selling points, etc. For example, a company may describe itself as “the world’s number one provider” or as priding itself on its customer service. Such statements should be attributed to their source. If such statements are key to the research, provide evidence of their truth.

Gallery 2.4

Example- Background

Problem/Opportunity

The Problem or Opportunity is the motivation for the particular project–the driving question.

The research or technical report is the response to a need for more or better information to improve understanding or decision-making. This need may be caused by a change in the client’s own circumstances, competitors’ actions, economic or social trends, or customer needs. Alternatively, the motivation for the project may be more proactive--to explore new products, services, markets or options.

Gallery 2.5

Example- Problem/ Opportunity

Research Objectives

The Objectives describe the primary issues or questions addressed in the report itself.

Objectives should use concrete and specific verbs like determine, estimate, measure, evaluate, identify, compare, generate, test, or prioritize. The objectives should be comprehensive, meaning they should cover all the issues addressed in the report.

Objectives may be a subset of issues identified in the Problem/Opportunity. This occurs because a single project cannot address them all or because there is insufficient information or resources at this time.

The Objectives of the report are not conducting research, analyzing data, or reporting results. Those are activities that lead to the answers to the research questions.

Gallery 2.6

Example- Research Objectives

Action Standard

An Action Standard defines the criteria that will be used to interpret the results or to make decisions. It is the standard that will be used to define what is important, significant, or merits action in the report. While others may choose to use other criteria, including an Action Standard ensures that there is no confusion about what is used in the report.

A Standard is needed because a value—say, 100—has no meaning except in context. If it is body temperature, 100 indicates a fever. If it is a test score, its meaning depends on what grading scale is being used (i.e., 100 point test, SAT, or GMAT).

Standards set early in the process, in conjunction with the client, help avoid misunderstandings and disagreements.

Action Standards take the form of “ratios higher than …” or “the top three most frequently mentioned …” or “statistically significant differences at 0.05 …”Research Method

The Method describes the means used to generate answers to the research objectives, which includes:

the source and type of data;

how, where, when, and from whom it was collected; and

how it was analyzed or adapted to answer the questions.

These descriptions should be concise explanations of the outcome of the methods rather than step-by-step descriptions of the processes.

For example, it is better to say “a survey was mailed to all residents of …” rather than “a list of residents was provided by the client and a survey was developed … reviewed by the client, …”

Headings and subheadings may be particularly important in organizing this section. So are definitions and detailed descriptions. For example, you may describe your study as a survey of home owners living in the Buckhead area. This requires you to define or describes.

Buckhead and homeowners;

how homeowners were identified and contacted;

how and when a survey was distributed; what incentives, if any, were offered;

what the response rate was; what the resulting sample was; and

how it compared to known characteristics of the entire population of Buckhead home owners.

The Methods section is the section in which people often use technical terms when simple descriptions will work. Terms like random or systematic stratified sample have very specific meanings. You, as the writer, must be sure you are using any term correctly. Even better, translate the process into plain English descriptions.

Data sources and variables are often described as though every reader is familiar with them. Often they are not.

If you are using a customer database to address the questions, assume that no reader has actually worked with the data. Hence, you would avoid the use of cryptic variable names and would not assume that readers know the source or meaning of the data. A common term like annual revenue could be the total dollars sold to or collected from the customer. It could also refer to the annual sales of the customer. This number might be as reported in annual reports or estimated by your company from other sources.

If there are several stages of analysis or the analysis is complex, the Methods section may include an overview with specific details, such as formulas or transformations, described just prior to those Results.

Gallery 2.7

Example- Research Method

Research Results

The Results provide the evidence generated and its interpretation to address the Objectives.

Results should be presented in a logical order that may not match the order of data collection and analysis.

If the Objectives described three key questions, then the Results may logically be presented in that order.

If the questions were addressed by a sequential analysis of a database (i.e., from simple to more complex), the Results may be most logically presented in that order.

In either case, the Results section may begin with a depiction of the respondents, (i.e., characteristics of the respondent), or depiction of the current state of knowledge (i.e., what does the existing data show?).

The Results section is an appropriate place for intentional repetition. To use the Results correctly, the reader may need to be reminded of exactly which data were used (i.e., what the question or variable was), who provided the answers (i.e., all surveyed or just one group), sample size, time period, and so forth. It is a good, standard practice to include this type of information in tables, charts or graphs.

Consider carefully the best form in which to provide the Results.

Text/words are generally better to define the context and provide the interpretation of the data or analysis.

Tables, charts or graphs are often more effective to show numerical values and demonstrate magnitude (i.e., how big or how small) or comparisons.

Use both to provide the reader with the question addressed and your interpretation along with the evidence used to make the interpretation.

Gallery 2.8

Example- Research Results

Managerial Implications

Managerial Implications summarize what the results mean in terms of actions. In other words, Managerial Implications compare the results to the action standard, and indicate what action—or even non-action—should be taken in response.

Managerial Implications should focus only on the evidence provided in the report rather than on how to implement the results. If explicitly asked to do so, you may add sections—clearly labeled—that separate your idea generation from the evidence-based interpretation of the research results.

In terms of order, the Managerial Implications should flow directly from the Objectives, summarizing the answers to the questions asked and the evidence in support of the answers.

The Managerial Implications may identify additional information needed for greater certainty. It should also remind the reader of limitations or caveats about the using the results, such as amount, quality or timeliness of the data.

Appendices

An Appendix is a reference section that provides greater detail on a specific topic. Each Appendix and its content or purpose should be explicitly referenced in the body of the report.

An Appendix is appropriate for:

an entire document, such as a copy of the actual survey or moderator’s guide. This allows the reader to see the document as it was used rather than simply the pieces as provided in the report itself.

detailed lists or results, such as a complete list of organizations reviewed in the research or all verbatim responses to a question. Including this kind of reference as an appendix does not replace the summary description or results in the report itself.

technical details of analysis, which may be appropriate for a particular audience such as statisticians. Such technical details should be designed as a well-structured presentation and not merely be a set of printouts from computer analysis.

Acknowledge Sources

Research reports are built on diverse sources. The skill is in bringing those sources together to improve understanding or decision-making. Unless attributed, all statements, analysis, interpretation and opinion in a report will be attributed to you.

If it is wrong, then you are at fault. If it is correct, you will be credited with providing solid evidence.

What should you acknowledge?

Anything taken from another source including pictures or logos. Citations are required if you quote directly, paraphrase, or use someone’s ideas or opinions as your own. For clarity, see Acknowledging Sources at http://library.uta.edu/plagiarism/.

Be comprehensive in describing the sources you used. You may decide to quote only one source but you should show the extent to which you examined appropriate sources.

Where should you place acknowledgements?

You may have a Reference section, use footnotes or endnotes, or all of these. Again, consider the reader and place it where it is most useful.

What should be included in a citation?

Different disciplines have preferred methods for citing sources. The important thing is to know what details are needed for the citation to be credible and to be located by others.

Here is a good Citation Styles Guide: Citation Styles in Georgia State University Library Research Guides

section 2.4

Choosing Software

A word-processing program may seem the logical tool for creating reports. However, presentation or publishing software programs, such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Publisher, may be better choices.

They can be easily formatted as a report.

Combining text with tables, charts or graphs is more controllable (i.e., things stay where they are placed).

Pages are discrete rather than continuous. This forces the writer to organize results and put related materials together. It also encourages conciseness and breaking materials into cognitively-manageable amounts.

It is easy to convert the report for a presentation.

Choose a simple template Black-and-white is fine and results in a smaller file size. Avoid adding bells-and-whistles, literally or figuratively. These become distractions to your message.

Chapter 3

Plain English

Plain English is standard American English. Using Plain English “means creating a document that is 1

visually inviting,

logically organized, and

understandable on the first reading.”

“Culture is the disease of American writing. We are a society strangling in unnecessary words, circular constructions, pompous frills and meaningless jargon. …

Our national tendency is to inflate and thereby sound important. The airline pilot who announces that he is presently anticipating experiencing considerable precipitation wouldn’t dream of saying it may rain. The sentence is too simple- there must be something wrong with it …[T]hese are the thousand and one adulterants that weaken the strength of a sentence. And they usually occur in proportion to education and rank. 2

Good writing comes through revision. How many times should you revise? Successful fiction writer Stephen King says, “For me, the answer has always been two drafts and a polish (with the advent of word-processing technology, my polishes have become closer to a third draft).” 3

The best way to write well is to emulate good writing and recognize bad writing. When you see something in a technical report, news story or other article that is easy to understand, save and study it for what makes it remarkable. As King points out, “… we read to experience the mediocre and the outright rotten; such experience helps us to recognize those things when they begin to creep into our own work, and to steer clear of them.” 4

section 3.1

Write for Your Reader

​

Writing in plain English does not mean “dumbing it down.” Each reader has a different background (think: “speaks a different language”). You must write in a common language—plain English. You must demonstrate your mastery of technical materials and your credibility by explaining it to someone not as well versed in the particular subject.

Write to the client. The report is about the client, not about the researcher, analyst or team. The client is interested in answers to their questions not in descriptions of meetings held, how much time was devoted to each task, or trivial steps of your analysis.

Recommended Writing Style Books:

William Strunk, Jr. The Elements of Style

William Zinsser. On Writing Well. New York: Harper Collins.

Bulb picture created by artworkbean from Noun Project

section 3.2

Write Accurately

People will judge you by your writing. Thus, the first goal of your writing should be accuracy.

To make a good impression on readers, a report must be error-free—free of arithmetical, grammatical, and typographical mistakes, however minor they may be…. [W]riters often look over their final drafts hastily or not at all.

The price of carelessness can be quite high. Incorrectly typed numbers, percentages that do not add up, misspelled words, and other minor errors are usually major distractions to readers. 5

Spell-checking is not proofreading. Spell-checking may guide you to easy-to-detect errors, such as a misspelled word. The spell-checker does not know which word you intended, (e.g., form or from, indicated or indicted). It cannot detect an incorrectly used word (e.g., predicated or precipitated).

Do not spin the results of your research. Accurate reporting means an objective presentation–not as the client expected or wished it could be. Technical reports serve as the basis for decisions, and the reader must be assured of the lack of bias. It is better to be disappointed than to be misled.

Proofread your writing carefully! Your client will notice any errors you overlook.

Commonly misused words:

Infoplease- Easily Confused or Misused Words

Bartleby- Words and Expressions Commonly Misused

SourceAid- Commonly Misused Words

Commonly misspelled words:

100 Most Often Misspelled Words in English

Section 3.3

Write Clearly

Natural Word Order

In a sentence, follow “[t]he natural word order of English speakers … subject-verb-object. Your sentences will be clearer if you follow this order as closely as possible.” 6

This order lets the writer see where clarification is needed and where to place modifiers properly. Words in the wrong place can make you sound foolish. See some examples of how and a quiz at Misplaced Modifiers.

Each section and paragraph should state what is to be accomplished within or what finding is being described. Technical writing does not have a punchline, climax or surprise ending.

A paragraph might begin with the task,

“To determine the return on investment …” or

“To measure the effectiveness of the new policy …”

or the result,

“Five different segments of customers were identified …” or

“The training program improved retention …”

… making it clear what the topic is. Then the method and supporting evidence are described. Thus, the reader knows where you are going and can judge the credibility of your statements.Buzzwords

Clear writing avoids buzzwords, clichés, trite expressions and undefined acronyms. Such expressions may make the writer appear lazy. Don’t get caught by people playing Buzzword_Bingo.

section 3.4

Write Concisely

“… [T]he secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components. Every word that serves no function, every long word that could be a short word, every adverb that carries the same meaning that’s already in the verb, every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what …” 7

Concise writing emerges from multiple drafts of a manuscript. “Redundancy is often a natural result of the drafting process, when the writer, in a rush to get the words out, is, suitably, uncritical. Revision is supposed to catch these problems.” 8

So, get all of your ideas on paper and then go back and revise your draft.

Concise writing avoids superfluous words, (i.e., replace “because of the fact” with “because”, “subsequent to” with “after”, “in order to” with “to”, “until such time as” with “until”). See other Deadwood Phrases.

Concise writing deletes redundant adjectives and adverbs (i.e., carefully analyzed, appropriate information, determine specifically) and eliminates unnecessary prepositional phrases. Identifying prepositions (e.g., of, to) allows you to write more concisely and clearly. See Paramedic Method: A Lesson in Writing Concisely.

Instead of:

“The tremendous growth was mainly a result of the increase of disposable income of people, increased leisure time, and better equipped resort areas catering to all types of skiers.”

… it is more concise to write:

“More disposable income, more leisure time, and better resorts increased the market for ski accessories by 45%.” 9

Concise writing improves readability. This may mean combining several short sentences into one long, clearer sentence. It may mean revising a complex, compound sentence into two or more short, clearer sentences.

section 3.5

Write Precisely

Choose Words Carefully

Precise word choices and precisely-worded sentences ensure that the relevant facts are conveyed. Phrases such as the database “was analyzed for information” or “was reviewed to gain insights” provide no precise information for the reader.

Many words used in everyday language have specific meaning in business analysis. Words such as significant, different, relationship, cause, effect, affect, and compare imply specific types of analysis. Be sure you are using them correctly.

To be precise, descriptions should convey the type of analysis and direction of effects. For an example that shows how imprecise writing may affect interpretation, see Get Your Terms Right.Write Explicitly

Phrases like “resulted in” or “affected by” are commonly used in business reports, but convey little about what actually occurred. Rather than:

“The new protocol resulted in changes in employee compliance with safety regulations,”

it is more precise to write: “The new protocol increased compliance with safety regulations.”

1. A Plain English Handbook, 65.

2. William Zinsser. On Writing Well. New York: Harper Collins, 1998, 7-8

3. On Writing, New York: Scribner, 2000, 208-209.

4. Ibid., 147.

5. A. Parasuraman, D. Grewal, and R. Krishnan (2007), Marketing Research, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 531.

6. A Plain English Handbook, 32.

7. William Zinsser, On Writing Well, New York: Harper Collins, 1998, 7-8.

8. David Nadziejka, Technical Communication, 1994, (41,2), 310.​
9. Richard Lanham, Revising Business Prose, Los Angeles: Macm

Chapter 4

Numbers

Research and technical reports are usually about numbers. As the executives in the story to the right say, “… it’s hard to look smart with bad numbers.” “Deliver good numbers and you earn the right for people to listen to you.”

Communicating the numbers means first and foremost that they are correct and credible. Even one bad number can undermine your hard work.

Numbers are objective but they lack meaning without context or a baseline. We all know what 10,000 means. Without a context or comparison, we don’t know how to interpret it. It might be very disappointing as a salary but nice as a bonus or raise. If it’s the Dow Jones Industrial closing, it matters whether it’s up or down from recent closings as well as what it means historically.

The goal should be to provide the relevant numbers in a context that allows them to be interpreted as needed for decision-making.

An NCR executive was giving a presentation; he had great slides and an even better delivery. The CEO, Chuck Exley, listened to the entire presentation in his typically gracious, courteous manner. At the conclusion, he nodded and said somethings brief but profound: Good story, but it’s hard to look smart with bad numbers.

And as I reflected on it, the presenter, articulate as he was, as good as his slides were, simply had bad numbers. That comment has always stayed with me. You have to focus on the underlying substance, … Deliver good numbers and you earn the right for people to listen to you. 1

section 4.1

Be Precise

Choosing Words or Numbers

People are often more comfortable communicating in words. However…“[o]ur reports would communicate research results more precisely if we used the original numbers rather than converting them to words.” 2

Words can be used to talk about numbers, but choose carefully. Experts have identified words that are used frequently in research reports to describe: 2,3

amounts — most, majority, half, minority, few,

probabilities – always, never, probably, usually,

time – soon, right away,

comparisons or change – more than, less than,

and identified modifiers to make them more precise - - overwhelmingly, substantial, slight, limited, large, little, very and extremely.

But they found that the researchers and the managers did not agree on the numerical meaning of the words (e.g., what percentage does minority mean?).

What are your options?

Provide the actual numbers – in an accompanying table or chart or by including the numbers in the text such as in parentheses after a descriptive phrase.

Use more precise words– e.g., “just over two-thirds” rather than “a large majority”.

Define how you will use such terms and use them consistently.

Gallery 4.1

Example- Be Precise

Using Terms

Statistical language is precise and concise if you know it and use it properly. If some of your readers will have to translate the terms or you will have to explain them, perhaps it’s better to simply translate them. But do it correctly. Ultimately, the reader must understand what the numbers mean, not just what they are.

Choose the simplest, most precise description.

Examples:

According to the Census Bureau, the median U.S. household income in 2007 was $50,740. 4

Does everyone know what median means? You could provide a definition such as “the median is the value that divides the distribution of observed data in halves” or more simply report that “50% of U.S. households had incomes of $50,740 or less.”

According to the California Tomato Growers Association (CTGA), “Each man, woman and child in America consumes almost 80 pounds of tomatoes every year.” 5

Chances are the CTGA is reporting consumption per capita, or the average for the U.S. population. Their choice of words says that each and every man, woman and child in the United States. eats tomatoes and each eats almost 80 pounds every year. This is certainly not true.

Percentage vs. Percent?

Percentage is a noun and is not used with a number, such as “A large percentage of buyers…”

Percent is an adverb that is used with a number, such as “Forty percent of buyers…”

From Ask Dr. Math

Define Units of Measure

Define the units of measure. Even commonly used words may not have a common meaning. And they may be measured in different ways.

“… the word ‘ton’ has at least five different possible meanings.” 6

A billion in the U.S. is “a thousand million, or one followed by nine zeros. But in much of Europe, a ‘billion’ … is a million million, or one followed by 12 zeros.” 7

The term year may be used for a calendar year, fiscal year, school year, work year, or tax year.

Obesity has different meanings for adults and children. With the same body mass index (BMI), an adult is diagnosed as obese while the child is overweight. 8

So define what you are measuring and how it is being measured. If numbers are assigned to represent quantities or characteristics, be sure the measurement scale is well described. 9How Precise?

Determine what level of precision is appropriate. Should you report dollars and cents? Should you round to whole dollars or even to the nearest $10 or $100? How many decimal places should you report?

The answer depends on the precision of the data and on how the data will be used.

Two or fewer decimal places will often be sufficient.

If the data are based on opinion or estimates, results with several decimal places are too precise. (See example at right.)

If you are providing estimates or ranges, rounded numbers are more acceptable.

More precision is needed if

the decision requires an exact number,

the values are part of a total (i.e., must sum to 100%), or

the values are part of a calculation where rounding could make a difference in later results.

Too Much Precision

When do you expect to open new facilities? (n=1111)

Within 6 months

5.13054%

6 months – 2 years

42.3942%

More than 2 years

52.47525%

section 4.2

Put Numbers into Context

The reader needs a context for interpreting all the data you report.

Imagine that you analyzed the behavior of 100 firms in your industry from several sources. The reader needs to know: Is this a small sample of the industry or is it all firms in the industry? Are the data potentially biased, that is, representing only certain types of firms or only a small number of firms?

Put the information right where it’s needed to keep the numbers in context.

Remind the reader of the source of the data (e.g., government reports, survey data).

Provide the sample or sub-sample size.

Caution the reader if certain results may be biased (e.g., representing only public firms, only the small percentage that provided data).

What should you do?

Use descriptive titles, headings, subheadings, and footnotes in text, tables, charts and graphs.

Where necessary, add caveats such as “of the four percent who reported these data” or “of the 22% who reported problems.” Such cautions do not undermine your report but enhance its value in decision-making.

A good test is whether the page or section can stand alone. Does it have all the details needed to interpret the data correctly?

section 4.3

Translate Analysis into Plain English

This module cannot teach you about statistics or analytical tools. But, as you learn those concepts and tools, you should learn to express them in Plain English. Doing so will improve your mastery as well as your communications.

Know what question each analytical method asks. Each method was designed to ask a very specific question of the data – Is there a difference? Is there a relationship? Does X predict Y?

These questions can be expressed mathematically in a very precise form, such as hypotheses and formulas. However, describing the questions, answers and their implications in Plain English will allow readers with different levels of statistical training to understand the approach and value for decision-making.

This approach does not mean “dumbing down” the analysis. It means finding a common language. Provide any necessary technical information in a form as well thought out as the rest of the report. Do not insert the computer printout assuming that more statistically-minded readers will be able to interpret it properly.

Translate for Decision-making

Regression may be expressed precisely as a formula:

Y=a+b1X1+b2X2+b3X3+e

Instead, your reader may need to know you…” used regression to determine how well expenditures on advertising…”

section 4.4

Define Significance and Importance

Terms associated with data analysis like significant have a different meaning than that used in casual conversation. In a research report, you should:

use such terms only as they are used for statistics and analysis, and

create or find a Plain English equivalent so a lay reader will understand its proper meaning.

This first requires you to be confident in your understanding of the language of statistics. For example, significant is used by statisticians as shorthand for statistically significant and refers only to the likelihood of finding a particular result from an analysis, given the data, the sample and other conditions. It says nothing about whether the finding is important, or large or small, regardless of the level of statistical significance used (e.g., 95% or 99%). You might avoid some confusion by using the term “statistically significant”.

Important refers to the managerial or strategic value of the information. It is defined by the client and reflected in the research question and the choice of action standards. In general, statements about importance should be made using only the client’s definition of important.

Caution

Googling terms like “statistical significance meaning” will yield lots of sources. Be sure the sources are credible and the explanations are accurate before using them.

section 4.5

Improve Usefulness

Look for ways to make the data more useful.

Convert numbers to a common base such as sales per capita or to a common base year if it will improve comparisons.

Describe any conversions you make and rename the converted numbers accordingly.

Be sure the reader knows when you refer to the original numbers versus the converted numbers.

Consider what the reader will try to do with the numbers. Do it for them.

Put numbers in the form they are needed for effective use. Decide if the actual numbers or the percentages are more useful. Both are relevant but choose the one that fits the task better. Or use both.Which is more useful?

When do you expect to open new facilities? (n=1111)

#

Within 6 months

57

6 months – 2 years

471

More than 2 years

583

When do you expect to open new facilities? (n=1111)

%

Within 6 months

5

6 months – 2 years

42

More than 2 years

53

section 4.6

Style Rules

Know when to use numerals and when to spell out the numbers. The general accepted style within text is:

You should not start a sentence with numerals. Rather than “32% of firms … ,” write “Thirty-two percent of firms ….”

Numbers less than 10 are spelled out (e.g., one, five, nine). In a list, it may be logical to use numerals consistently.

Numerals can be used for numbers 10 and higher.

Write for the reader’s eye. Choose the quickest and easiest way for your reader to grasp the meaning of numbers.

Rather than writing $1,000,000, write $1 million.

Rather than $1,000, write one thousand dollars.

Add leading zeros (0) to decimal numbers. Rather than .63, write 0.63 to assure your reader does not miss the decimal point.

1. The Best Advice I Ever Got by Mark Hurd, Chairman and CEO, Hewlett-Packard

2. Scipione, Paul (1995), “The Value of Words” Journal of Advertising Research, May/June, 36-43.

3. Holmes, Terence L. and Edward C. Brewer (2006), “An Experiential Classroom Exercise to Improve Communication Effectiveness,” The Archives of Marketing Education.

4. State & County QuickFacts

5. http://www.ctga.org/newctga/facts.htm

6. Koomey, Jonathan G. (2008) Turning Numbers into Knowledge, Oakland, CA: Analytics Press, p. 152, 178.

7. Bialik, Carl (2006), “When a Billion Isn’t a Billion,” The Numbers Guy Blog, Wall Street Journal Onine, (March 30), accessed at http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB114364857897711253_VKgSqBurlhXnTpyAIDrFbo9mnA_20071216.html?mod=blogs

8. from Defining Adult Overweight and Obesity

9. The Numbers Guy, Wall Street Journal Online

Chapter 5

Graphics

What is a Graphic?

It is a visual display of information.

A graphic can be an effective way to present data and their interpretation. The common saying that “a picture is worth a thousand words” assumes that a picture can “say” things that words could not say or could not say as clearly or concisely.

Whether you create your own graphics or have others do it, in this module, you will find:

An introduction to basic design principles for effectively communicating data,

Some of those principles in action, and

Common terminology used in graphic design.

Charts, or Graphs?

Terms such as tables, charts, and graphs are not consistently used among designers, users and software developers.

Table is often used to describe structured text and data. Rather than writing in sentences and paragraph form, the writer uses spacing, bullet points, rows and columns, or other devices to format the information. The table may appear as part of the text or as a separate graphic.

Chart is used by some experts as an umbrella term for any table or graph. Familiar to users of software programs is its use for specific kinds of graphics, such as bar chart and column chart. This use is distinct from graph which often refers to “line” or linear representations of data.

It doesn’t really matter what terminology you use but rather that you choose a form that best represents your purpose.Example Table

2008 Rank

2007 Rank

Brand

Country of Origin

Sector

2008 Brand Value (5m)

Change in Brand Value

1

1

Coca Cola

US

Beverage

66,667

2%

2

3

IBM

US

Computer Service

59,031

3%

3

2

Microsoft

US

Computer Software

59,007

1%

4

4

GE

US

Diversified

53,086

3%

5

5

NOKIA

Finland

Consumer Electronics

35,942

7%

http://interbrand.com/best_global_brands.aspx?langid=1000

Gallery 5.1 Example Charts

Example Bar Chart

Example Line Graph

http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/info-oil100_0711.html

section 5.1

Purpose of Graphics

What are you trying to show with a graphic? As a guide, experts have identified seven types of relationships that writers often want to display. 1​
Each addresses different questions and narrows the choice of which charts or graphs may be better.​
Greater detail and example graphics may be found at:

Eenie, Meenie, Minie, Moe: Selecting the Right Graph for Your Message

Below is a brief summary of the types with example questions.

Type of Relationship

Type of Questions

Number Comparison

Which one is bigger? How much bigger?

Time Series

Is it changing over time? Is it going up or down Is it Steady or fluctuating?

Ranking

What is the order of preferences? Which one rank higher and lower?

Part-to-Whole

What share do we have? What percent of the whole is ours?

Deviation

Compared to our target, how do our results differ? How much difference is there?

Frequency Distribution

Are our results evenly or unevenly distributed across the country? Are they concentrated in some areas?

Correlation

Is there a relationship between our effort and results? Did our response make the desired changes?

section 5.2

Choose the Best Graphic: Charts, Graphs, and Tables

The best graphic matches the purpose to the way people naturally “see” things, or visual perception. Experts know a lot about visual perception. Fortunately, you don’t have to be an expert to recognize what works better.

Take this short quiz to see how well you already understand good design:

section 5.3

Focus on the Data Not the Design

Data is Your Message

“Above all else show the data. Graphical excellence is the well-designed presentation of interesting data - - a matter of substance, of statistics, and of design.” 2

Data is your message. Design should serve only to make understanding the data easy.

Guides to good design emphasize simplicity. This may encourage people to simplify the data, not the design.

Perhaps “elegant” is a better guide. Elegant refers to exercising “a nice choice … characterized by … refinement, and the absence of every thing offensive.” 3 In our case, offensive means distracting the eye from the data. Edward Tufte, renowned expert in information design, advocates high “data-ink ratio”—that “a large share of the ink [or pixels] on a graphic should present data-information.” 2

Elegant solutions can show rich data. Rich means show the depth or complexity of the data and insights. “The data is nearly always multivariate.” 3

Video: Choosing the Right Style

Movie 5.1 Choosing the Right Kind of Chart or Graph

This device does not support the video at this location

Handout to Accompany Video (PDF)

Section 5.4

Name the Parts of Graph or Chart

If you create a chart or graph in Microsoft Office, you might find that Microsoft uses some slightly different names for some of the parts of a graph.

Why should you care? Because you’ll want to know how to change graphs, in Excel, for example, and knowing what Excel calls the “x axis” might help.

Gallery 5.2 Graph or Chart

Pie Chart

Column & Bar Charts

Line Graph

section 5.5

Refine Charts

Gallery 5.3

Example 1 (/per month)

Example 2 (/per month)

Example 3

Example 4

Gallery 5.4

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

Gallery 5.5

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Gallery 5.6

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

1. Few, Stephen (2004), Show Me the Numbers: Designing Tables and Graphs to Enlighten, Oakland, CA: Analytics Press; Zelazny, Gene (2001), Say It With Charts, New York: McGraw-Hill.

2. Tufte, Edward (1983), The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press, p. 92, 93 (respectively)​
3. elegant. Dictionary.com. Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/elegant (accessed: September 15, 2008)

Conclusion

Any resource is useful only insofar as it is read, understood and applied by its users. When instructors take more interest in improving their own skills, resources such as “Writing Effective Research and Technical Reports” will become useful for training aspiring professionals to research, develop and write professional reports.

Defensible

able to be thought of as good or acceptable

able to be defended or protected : able to be kept safe from damage or harm

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Disclaimers

a statement that is meant to prevent an incorrect understanding of something (such as a book, a movie, or an advertisement)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Bells-and-whistles

parts and features that are useful or appealing but not essential or necessary

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Buzzwords

a word or phrase that becomes very popular for a period of time

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Clichés

a phrase or expression that has been used so often that it is no longer original or interesting

something that is so commonly used in books, stories, etc., that it is no longer effective

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Redundancy

the act of using a word, phrase, etc., that repeats something else and is therefore unnecessary

a word, phrase, etc., that repeats something else and is therefore unnecessary : a redundant word, phrase, etc.

a part in a machine, system, etc., that has the same function as another part and that exists so that the entire machine, system, etc., will not fail if the main part fails

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Readability

easy and enjoyable to read

clear and easy to read

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Shorthand

a method of writing quickly by using symbols or abbreviations for sounds, words, or phrases

a short or quick way of showing or saying something

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Terminology

the special words or phrases that are used in a particular field

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Stratified

transitive verb

to form, deposit, or arrange in strata

to divide or arrange into classes, castes, or social strata

to divide into a series of graded statuses

intransitive verb

to become arranged in strata

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Cryptic

difficult to understand : having or seeming to have a hidden meaning

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Strangling

to kill (a person or animal) by squeezing the throat

to stop (something) from growing or developing

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Pompous

having or showing the attitude of people who speak and behave in a very formal and serious way because they believe that they are better, smarter, or more important than other people

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Frills

to provide or decorate with a frill

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Inflate

to add air or gas to (something, such as a tire or a balloon) and make it larger

to become larger by being filled with air or gas

to think or say that (something) is larger or more important than it really is

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Polish

to make (something) smooth and shiny by rubbing it

to improve (something) : to make (something) better than it was before

to put nail polish on (a fingernail or toenail)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Emulate

to try to be like (someone or something you admire)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Rotten

having rotted or decayed and no longer able to be used, eaten, etc.

very bad or unpleasant

not well or healthy

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Creep

to move slowly with the body close to the ground

to move slowly and quietly especially in order to not be noticed

to go or seem to go very slowly

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Arithmetical

a branch of mathematics that deals with numbers and their addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

the act or process of calculating a number

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Punchline

the words at the end of a joke or story that make it funny, surprising, etc.

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Defensible

able to be thought of as good or acceptable

able to be defended or protected : able to be kept safe from damage or harm

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 2 - Process for Creating a Research Report

Disclaimers

a statement that is meant to prevent an incorrect understanding of something (such as a book, a movie, or an advertisement)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 2 - Content Sections

Chapter 2 - Content Sections

Bells-and-whistles

parts and features that are useful or appealing but not essential or necessary

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 2 - Choosing Software

Buzzwords

a word or phrase that becomes very popular for a period of time

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Clearly

Clichés

a phrase or expression that has been used so often that it is no longer original or interesting

something that is so commonly used in books, stories, etc., that it is no longer effective

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Clearly

Redundancy

the act of using a word, phrase, etc., that repeats something else and is therefore unnecessary

a word, phrase, etc., that repeats something else and is therefore unnecessary : a redundant word, phrase, etc.

a part in a machine, system, etc., that has the same function as another part and that exists so that the entire machine, system, etc., will not fail if the main part fails

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Concisely

Readability

easy and enjoyable to read

clear and easy to read

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Concisely

Shorthand

a method of writing quickly by using symbols or abbreviations for sounds, words, or phrases

a short or quick way of showing or saying something

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 4 - Define Significance and Importance

Terminology

the special words or phrases that are used in a particular field

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 5 - Graphics

Stratified

transitive verb

to form, deposit, or arrange in strata

to divide or arrange into classes, castes, or social strata

to divide into a series of graded statuses

intransitive verb

to become arranged in strata

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 2 - Content Sections

Cryptic

difficult to understand : having or seeming to have a hidden meaning

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 2 - Content Sections

Strangling

to kill (a person or animal) by squeezing the throat

to stop (something) from growing or developing

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Pompous

having or showing the attitude of people who speak and behave in a very formal and serious way because they believe that they are better, smarter, or more important than other people

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Frills

to provide or decorate with a frill

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Inflate

to add air or gas to (something, such as a tire or a balloon) and make it larger

to become larger by being filled with air or gas

to think or say that (something) is larger or more important than it really is

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Polish

to make (something) smooth and shiny by rubbing it

to improve (something) : to make (something) better than it was before

to put nail polish on (a fingernail or toenail)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Emulate

to try to be like (someone or something you admire)

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Rotten

having rotted or decayed and no longer able to be used, eaten, etc.

very bad or unpleasant

not well or healthy

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Creep

to move slowly with the body close to the ground

to move slowly and quietly especially in order to not be noticed

to go or seem to go very slowly

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Plain English

Arithmetical

a branch of mathematics that deals with numbers and their addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

the act or process of calculating a number

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Accurately

Punchline

the words at the end of a joke or story that make it funny, surprising, etc.

Source: Merriam-Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (http://www.merriam-webster.com/)

Index

Chapter 3 - Write Clearly